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<div class="section" id="glossary">
<span id="id1"></span><h1>Glossary<a class="headerlink" href="#glossary" title="Permalink to this headline">ΒΆ</a></h1>
<dl class="glossary docutils">
<dt id="term-"><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">>>></span></tt></dt>
<dd>The default Python prompt of the interactive shell. Often seen for code
examples which can be executed interactively in the interpreter.</dd>
<dt id="term-1"><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">...</span></tt></dt>
<dd>The default Python prompt of the interactive shell when entering code for
an indented code block or within a pair of matching left and right
delimiters (parentheses, square brackets or curly braces).</dd>
<dt id="term-to3">2to3</dt>
<dd><p class="first">A tool that tries to convert Python 2.x code to Python 3.x code by
handling most of the incompatibilites which can be detected by parsing the
source and traversing the parse tree.</p>
<p class="last">2to3 is available in the standard library as <a title="the 2to3 library" class="reference external" href="library/2to3.html#module-lib2to3"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">lib2to3</span></tt></a>; a standalone
entry point is provided as <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">Tools/scripts/2to3</span></tt>. See
<a class="reference external" href="library/2to3.html#to3-reference"><em>2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation</em></a>.</p>
</dd>
<dt id="term-abstract-base-class">abstract base class</dt>
<dd>Abstract Base Classes (abbreviated ABCs) complement <a class="reference internal" href="#term-duck-typing"><em class="xref">duck-typing</em></a> by
providing a way to define interfaces when other techniques like
<a title="hasattr" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#hasattr"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">hasattr()</span></tt></a> would be clumsy. Python comes with many built-in ABCs for
data structures (in the <a title="Container datatypes" class="reference external" href="library/collections.html#module-collections"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">collections</span></tt></a> module), numbers (in the
<a title="Numeric abstract base classes (Complex, Real, Integral, etc.)." class="reference external" href="library/numbers.html#module-numbers"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">numbers</span></tt></a> module), and streams (in the <a title="Core tools for working with streams." class="reference external" href="library/io.html#module-io"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">io</span></tt></a> module). You can
create your own ABC with the <a title="Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119." class="reference external" href="library/abc.html#module-abc"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">abc</span></tt></a> module.</dd>
<dt id="term-argument">argument</dt>
<dd><p class="first">A value passed to a function or method, assigned to a named local
variable in the function body. A function or method may have both
positional arguments and keyword arguments in its definition.
Positional and keyword arguments may be variable-length: <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">*</span></tt> accepts
or passes (if in the function definition or call) several positional
arguments in a list, while <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">**</span></tt> does the same for keyword arguments
in a dictionary.</p>
<p class="last">Any expression may be used within the argument list, and the evaluated
value is passed to the local variable.</p>
</dd>
<dt id="term-attribute">attribute</dt>
<dd>A value associated with an object which is referenced by name using
dotted expressions. For example, if an object <em>o</em> has an attribute
<em>a</em> it would be referenced as <em>o.a</em>.</dd>
<dt id="term-bdfl">BDFL</dt>
<dd>Benevolent Dictator For Life, a.k.a. <a class="reference external" href="http://www.python.org/~guido/">Guido van Rossum</a>, Python’s creator.</dd>
<dt id="term-bytecode">bytecode</dt>
<dd>Python source code is compiled into bytecode, the internal representation
of a Python program in the interpreter. The bytecode is also cached in
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></tt> and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">.pyo</span></tt> files so that executing the same file is faster the
second time (recompilation from source to bytecode can be avoided). This
“intermediate language” is said to run on a <a class="reference internal" href="#term-virtual-machine"><em class="xref">virtual machine</em></a>
that executes the machine code corresponding to each bytecode.</dd>
<dt id="term-class">class</dt>
<dd>A template for creating user-defined objects. Class definitions
normally contain method definitions which operate on instances of the
class.</dd>
<dt id="term-coercion">coercion</dt>
<dd>The implicit conversion of an instance of one type to another during an
operation which involves two arguments of the same type. For example,
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">int(3.15)</span></tt> converts the floating point number to the integer <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">3</span></tt>, but
in <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">3+4.5</span></tt>, each argument is of a different type (one int, one float),
and both must be converted to the same type before they can be added or it
will raise a <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></tt>. Without coercion, all arguments of even
compatible types would have to be normalized to the same value by the
programmer, e.g., <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">float(3)+4.5</span></tt> rather than just <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">3+4.5</span></tt>.</dd>
<dt id="term-complex-number">complex number</dt>
<dd>An extension of the familiar real number system in which all numbers are
expressed as a sum of a real part and an imaginary part. Imaginary
numbers are real multiples of the imaginary unit (the square root of
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-1</span></tt>), often written <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">i</span></tt> in mathematics or <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">j</span></tt> in
engineering. Python has built-in support for complex numbers, which are
written with this latter notation; the imaginary part is written with a
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">j</span></tt> suffix, e.g., <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">3+1j</span></tt>. To get access to complex equivalents of the
<a title="Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)." class="reference external" href="library/math.html#module-math"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">math</span></tt></a> module, use <a title="Mathematical functions for complex numbers." class="reference external" href="library/cmath.html#module-cmath"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">cmath</span></tt></a>. Use of complex numbers is a fairly
advanced mathematical feature. If you’re not aware of a need for them,
it’s almost certain you can safely ignore them.</dd>
<dt id="term-context-manager">context manager</dt>
<dd>An object which controls the environment seen in a <a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">with</span></tt></a>
statement by defining <a title="object.__enter__" class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__enter__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__enter__()</span></tt></a> and <a title="object.__exit__" class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__exit__()</span></tt></a> methods.
See <span class="target" id="index-156"></span><a class="reference external" href="http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0343"><strong>PEP 343</strong></a>.</dd>
<dt id="term-cpython">CPython</dt>
<dd>The canonical implementation of the Python programming language. The
term “CPython” is used in contexts when necessary to distinguish this
implementation from others such as Jython or IronPython.</dd>
<dt id="term-decorator">decorator</dt>
<dd><p class="first">A function returning another function, usually applied as a function
transformation using the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">@wrapper</span></tt> syntax. Common examples for
decorators are <a title="classmethod" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#classmethod"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></tt></a> and <a title="staticmethod" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#staticmethod"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></tt></a>.</p>
<p>The decorator syntax is merely syntactic sugar, the following two
function definitions are semantically equivalent:</p>
<div class="highlight-python3"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">):</span>
<span class="o">...</span>
<span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">staticmethod</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="nd">@staticmethod</span>
<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">):</span>
<span class="o">...</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p class="last">The same concept exists for classes, but is less commonly used there. See
the documentation for <a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#function"><em>function definitions</em></a> and
<a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#class"><em>class definitions</em></a> for more about decorators.</p>
</dd>
<dt id="term-descriptor">descriptor</dt>
<dd><p class="first">Any object which defines the methods <a title="object.__get__" class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__get__()</span></tt></a>, <a title="object.__set__" class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__set__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__set__()</span></tt></a>, or
<a title="object.__delete__" class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__delete__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__delete__()</span></tt></a>. When a class attribute is a descriptor, its special
binding behavior is triggered upon attribute lookup. Normally, using
<em>a.b</em> to get, set or delete an attribute looks up the object named <em>b</em> in
the class dictionary for <em>a</em>, but if <em>b</em> is a descriptor, the respective
descriptor method gets called. Understanding descriptors is a key to a
deep understanding of Python because they are the basis for many features
including functions, methods, properties, class methods, static methods,
and reference to super classes.</p>
<p class="last">For more information about descriptors’ methods, see <a class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#descriptors"><em>Implementing Descriptors</em></a>.</p>
</dd>
<dt id="term-dictionary">dictionary</dt>
<dd>An associative array, where arbitrary keys are mapped to values. The use
of <a title="dict" class="reference external" href="library/stdtypes.html#dict"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">dict</span></tt></a> closely resembles that for <a title="list" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#list"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">list</span></tt></a>, but the keys can
be any object with a <a title="object.__hash__" class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></tt></a> function, not just integers.
Called a hash in Perl.</dd>
<dt id="term-docstring">docstring</dt>
<dd>A string literal which appears as the first expression in a class,
function or module. While ignored when the suite is executed, it is
recognized by the compiler and put into the <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></tt> attribute
of the enclosing class, function or module. Since it is available via
introspection, it is the canonical place for documentation of the
object.</dd>
<dt id="term-duck-typing">duck-typing</dt>
<dd>A pythonic programming style which determines an object’s type by inspection
of its method or attribute signature rather than by explicit relationship
to some type object (“If it looks like a duck and quacks like a duck, it
must be a duck.”) By emphasizing interfaces rather than specific types,
well-designed code improves its flexibility by allowing polymorphic
substitution. Duck-typing avoids tests using <a title="type" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#type"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">type()</span></tt></a> or
<a title="isinstance" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#isinstance"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">isinstance()</span></tt></a>. (Note, however, that duck-typing can be complemented
with abstract base classes.) Instead, it typically employs <a title="hasattr" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#hasattr"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">hasattr()</span></tt></a>
tests or <a class="reference internal" href="#term-eafp"><em class="xref">EAFP</em></a> programming.</dd>
<dt id="term-eafp">EAFP</dt>
<dd>Easier to ask for forgiveness than permission. This common Python coding
style assumes the existence of valid keys or attributes and catches
exceptions if the assumption proves false. This clean and fast style is
characterized by the presence of many <a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">try</span></tt></a> and <a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">except</span></tt></a>
statements. The technique contrasts with the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-lbyl"><em class="xref">LBYL</em></a> style
common to many other languages such as C.</dd>
<dt id="term-expression">expression</dt>
<dd>A piece of syntax which can be evaluated to some value. In other words,
an expression is an accumulation of expression elements like literals,
names, attribute access, operators or function calls which all return a
value. In contrast to many other languages, not all language constructs
are expressions. There are also <a class="reference internal" href="#term-statement"><em class="xref">statement</em></a>s which cannot be used
as expressions, such as <a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">if</span></tt></a>. Assignments are also statements,
not expressions.</dd>
<dt id="term-extension-module">extension module</dt>
<dd>A module written in C or C++, using Python’s C API to interact with the core and
with user code.</dd>
<dt id="term-finder">finder</dt>
<dd>An object that tries to find the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-loader"><em class="xref">loader</em></a> for a module. It must
implement a method named <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">find_module()</span></tt>. See <span class="target" id="index-157"></span><a class="reference external" href="http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> for
details and <a title="importlib.abc.Finder" class="reference external" href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Finder"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Finder</span></tt></a> for an
<a class="reference internal" href="#term-abstract-base-class"><em class="xref">abstract base class</em></a>.</dd>
<dt id="term-floor-division">floor division</dt>
<dd>Mathematical division discarding any remainder. The floor division
operator is <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">//</span></tt>. For example, the expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">11//4</span></tt> evaluates to
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">2</span></tt> in contrast to the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">2.75</span></tt> returned by float true division.</dd>
<dt id="term-function">function</dt>
<dd>A series of statements which returns some value to a caller. It can also
be passed zero or more arguments which may be used in the execution of
the body. See also <a class="reference internal" href="#term-argument"><em class="xref">argument</em></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#term-method"><em class="xref">method</em></a>.</dd>
<dt id="term-future">__future__</dt>
<dd><p class="first">A pseudo module which programmers can use to enable new language features
which are not compatible with the current interpreter.</p>
<p>By importing the <a title="Future statement definitions" class="reference external" href="library/__future__.html#module-__future__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__future__</span></tt></a> module and evaluating its variables,
you can see when a new feature was first added to the language and when it
becomes the default:</p>
<div class="last highlight-python3"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">__future__</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">__future__</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">division</span>
<span class="go">_Feature((2, 2, 0, 'alpha', 2), (3, 0, 0, 'alpha', 0), 8192)</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd>
<dt id="term-garbage-collection">garbage collection</dt>
<dd>The process of freeing memory when it is not used anymore. Python
performs garbage collection via reference counting and a cyclic garbage
collector that is able to detect and break reference cycles.</dd>
<dt id="term-generator">generator</dt>
<dd>A function which returns an iterator. It looks like a normal function
except that values are returned to the caller using a <a class="reference external" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">yield</span></tt></a>
statement instead of a <a class="reference external" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#return"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">return</span></tt></a> statement. Generator functions
often contain one or more <a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">for</span></tt></a> or <a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#while"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">while</span></tt></a> loops which
<a class="reference external" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">yield</span></tt></a> elements back to the caller. The function execution is
stopped at the <a class="reference external" href="reference/simple_stmts.html#yield"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">yield</span></tt></a> keyword (returning the result) and is
resumed there when the next element is requested by calling the
<tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></tt> method of the returned iterator.</dd>
<dt id="term-generator-expression">generator expression</dt>
<dd><p class="first">An expression that returns a generator. It looks like a normal expression
followed by a <a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">for</span></tt></a> expression defining a loop variable, range,
and an optional <a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">if</span></tt></a> expression. The combined expression
generates values for an enclosing function:</p>
<div class="last highlight-python3"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">10</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="c"># sum of squares 0, 1, 4, ... 81</span>
<span class="go">285</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd>
<dt id="term-gil">GIL</dt>
<dd>See <a class="reference internal" href="#term-global-interpreter-lock"><em class="xref">global interpreter lock</em></a>.</dd>
<dt id="term-global-interpreter-lock">global interpreter lock</dt>
<dd>The lock used by Python threads to assure that only one thread
executes in the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-cpython"><em class="xref">CPython</em></a> <a class="reference internal" href="#term-virtual-machine"><em class="xref">virtual machine</em></a> at a time.
This simplifies the CPython implementation by assuring that no two
processes can access the same memory at the same time. Locking the
entire interpreter makes it easier for the interpreter to be
multi-threaded, at the expense of much of the parallelism afforded by
multi-processor machines. Efforts have been made in the past to
create a “free-threaded” interpreter (one which locks shared data at a
much finer granularity), but so far none have been successful because
performance suffered in the common single-processor case.</dd>
<dt id="term-hashable">hashable</dt>
<dd><p class="first">An object is <em>hashable</em> if it has a hash value which never changes during
its lifetime (it needs a <a title="object.__hash__" class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__hash__()</span></tt></a> method), and can be compared to
other objects (it needs an <a title="object.__eq__" class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__eq__()</span></tt></a> method). Hashable objects which
compare equal must have the same hash value.</p>
<p>Hashability makes an object usable as a dictionary key and a set member,
because these data structures use the hash value internally.</p>
<p class="last">All of Python’s immutable built-in objects are hashable, while no mutable
containers (such as lists or dictionaries) are. Objects which are
instances of user-defined classes are hashable by default; they all
compare unequal, and their hash value is their <a title="id" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#id"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">id()</span></tt></a>.</p>
</dd>
<dt id="term-idle">IDLE</dt>
<dd>An Integrated Development Environment for Python. IDLE is a basic editor
and interpreter environment which ships with the standard distribution of
Python. Good for beginners, it also serves as clear example code for
those wanting to implement a moderately sophisticated, multi-platform GUI
application.</dd>
<dt id="term-immutable">immutable</dt>
<dd>An object with a fixed value. Immutable objects include numbers, strings and
tuples. Such an object cannot be altered. A new object has to
be created if a different value has to be stored. They play an important
role in places where a constant hash value is needed, for example as a key
in a dictionary.</dd>
<dt id="term-importer">importer</dt>
<dd>An object that both finds and loads a module; both a
<a class="reference internal" href="#term-finder"><em class="xref">finder</em></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#term-loader"><em class="xref">loader</em></a> object.</dd>
<dt id="term-interactive">interactive</dt>
<dd>Python has an interactive interpreter which means you can enter
statements and expressions at the interpreter prompt, immediately
execute them and see their results. Just launch <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">python</span></tt> with no
arguments (possibly by selecting it from your computer’s main
menu). It is a very powerful way to test out new ideas or inspect
modules and packages (remember <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">help(x)</span></tt>).</dd>
<dt id="term-interpreted">interpreted</dt>
<dd>Python is an interpreted language, as opposed to a compiled one,
though the distinction can be blurry because of the presence of the
bytecode compiler. This means that source files can be run directly
without explicitly creating an executable which is then run.
Interpreted languages typically have a shorter development/debug cycle
than compiled ones, though their programs generally also run more
slowly. See also <a class="reference internal" href="#term-interactive"><em class="xref">interactive</em></a>.</dd>
<dt id="term-iterable">iterable</dt>
<dd>A container object capable of returning its members one at a
time. Examples of iterables include all sequence types (such as
<a title="list" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#list"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">list</span></tt></a>, <a title="str" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#str"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">str</span></tt></a>, and <a title="tuple" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#tuple"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">tuple</span></tt></a>) and some non-sequence
types like <a title="dict" class="reference external" href="library/stdtypes.html#dict"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">dict</span></tt></a> and <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">file</span></tt> and objects of any classes you
define with an <a title="object.__iter__" class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></tt></a> or <a title="object.__getitem__" class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></tt></a> method. Iterables
can be used in a <a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">for</span></tt></a> loop and in many other places where a
sequence is needed (<a title="zip" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#zip"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">zip()</span></tt></a>, <a title="map" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#map"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">map()</span></tt></a>, ...). When an iterable
object is passed as an argument to the built-in function <a title="iter" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#iter"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">iter()</span></tt></a>, it
returns an iterator for the object. This iterator is good for one pass
over the set of values. When using iterables, it is usually not necessary
to call <a title="iter" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#iter"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">iter()</span></tt></a> or deal with iterator objects yourself. The <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">for</span></tt>
statement does that automatically for you, creating a temporary unnamed
variable to hold the iterator for the duration of the loop. See also
<a class="reference internal" href="#term-iterator"><em class="xref">iterator</em></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#term-sequence"><em class="xref">sequence</em></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#term-generator"><em class="xref">generator</em></a>.</dd>
<dt id="term-iterator">iterator</dt>
<dd><p class="first">An object representing a stream of data. Repeated calls to the iterator’s
<tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__next__()</span></tt> (or passing it to the builtin function) <a title="next" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#next"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">next()</span></tt></a>
method return successive items in the stream. When no more data are
available a <a title="exceptions.StopIteration" class="reference external" href="library/exceptions.html#exceptions.StopIteration"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></tt></a> exception is raised instead. At this
point, the iterator object is exhausted and any further calls to its
<a title="next" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#next"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">next()</span></tt></a> method just raise <a title="exceptions.StopIteration" class="reference external" href="library/exceptions.html#exceptions.StopIteration"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">StopIteration</span></tt></a> again. Iterators are
required to have an <a title="object.__iter__" class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__iter__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__iter__()</span></tt></a> method that returns the iterator
object itself so every iterator is also iterable and may be used in most
places where other iterables are accepted. One notable exception is code
which attempts multiple iteration passes. A container object (such as a
<a title="list" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#list"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">list</span></tt></a>) produces a fresh new iterator each time you pass it to the
<a title="iter" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#iter"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">iter()</span></tt></a> function or use it in a <a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">for</span></tt></a> loop. Attempting this
with an iterator will just return the same exhausted iterator object used
in the previous iteration pass, making it appear like an empty container.</p>
<p class="last">More information can be found in <a class="reference external" href="library/stdtypes.html#typeiter"><em>Iterator Types</em></a>.</p>
</dd>
<dt id="term-keyword-argument">keyword argument</dt>
<dd>Arguments which are preceded with a <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">variable_name=</span></tt> in the call.
The variable name designates the local name in the function to which the
value is assigned. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">**</span></tt> is used to accept or pass a dictionary of
keyword arguments. See <a class="reference internal" href="#term-argument"><em class="xref">argument</em></a>.</dd>
<dt id="term-lambda">lambda</dt>
<dd>An anonymous inline function consisting of a single <a class="reference internal" href="#term-expression"><em class="xref">expression</em></a>
which is evaluated when the function is called. The syntax to create
a lambda function is <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">lambda</span> <span class="pre">[arguments]:</span> <span class="pre">expression</span></tt></dd>
<dt id="term-lbyl">LBYL</dt>
<dd>Look before you leap. This coding style explicitly tests for
pre-conditions before making calls or lookups. This style contrasts with
the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-eafp"><em class="xref">EAFP</em></a> approach and is characterized by the presence of many
<a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">if</span></tt></a> statements.</dd>
<dt id="term-list">list</dt>
<dd>A built-in Python <a class="reference internal" href="#term-sequence"><em class="xref">sequence</em></a>. Despite its name it is more akin
to an array in other languages than to a linked list since access to
elements are O(1).</dd>
<dt id="term-list-comprehension">list comprehension</dt>
<dd>A compact way to process all or part of the elements in a sequence and
return a list with the results. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">result</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">["0x%02x"</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">for</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span>
<span class="pre">range(256)</span> <span class="pre">if</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">2</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">0]</span></tt> generates a list of strings containing
even hex numbers (0x..) in the range from 0 to 255. The <a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">if</span></tt></a>
clause is optional. If omitted, all elements in <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">range(256)</span></tt> are
processed.</dd>
<dt id="term-loader">loader</dt>
<dd>An object that loads a module. It must define a method named
<tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">load_module()</span></tt>. A loader is typically returned by a
<a class="reference internal" href="#term-finder"><em class="xref">finder</em></a>. See <span class="target" id="index-159"></span><a class="reference external" href="http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302"><strong>PEP 302</strong></a> for details and
<a title="importlib.abc.Loader" class="reference external" href="library/importlib.html#importlib.abc.Loader"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">importlib.abc.Loader</span></tt></a> for an <a class="reference internal" href="#term-abstract-base-class"><em class="xref">abstract base class</em></a>.</dd>
<dt id="term-mapping">mapping</dt>
<dd>A container object (such as <a title="dict" class="reference external" href="library/stdtypes.html#dict"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">dict</span></tt></a>) which supports arbitrary key
lookups using the special method <a title="object.__getitem__" class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></tt></a>.</dd>
<dt id="term-metaclass">metaclass</dt>
<dd><p class="first">The class of a class. Class definitions create a class name, a class
dictionary, and a list of base classes. The metaclass is responsible for
taking those three arguments and creating the class. Most object oriented
programming languages provide a default implementation. What makes Python
special is that it is possible to create custom metaclasses. Most users
never need this tool, but when the need arises, metaclasses can provide
powerful, elegant solutions. They have been used for logging attribute
access, adding thread-safety, tracking object creation, implementing
singletons, and many other tasks.</p>
<p class="last">More information can be found in <a class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#metaclasses"><em>Customizing class creation</em></a>.</p>
</dd>
<dt id="term-method">method</dt>
<dd>A function which is defined inside a class body. If called as an attribute
of an instance of that class, the method will get the instance object as
its first <a class="reference internal" href="#term-argument"><em class="xref">argument</em></a> (which is usually called <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">self</span></tt>).
See <a class="reference internal" href="#term-function"><em class="xref">function</em></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#term-nested-scope"><em class="xref">nested scope</em></a>.</dd>
<dt id="term-mutable">mutable</dt>
<dd>Mutable objects can change their value but keep their <a title="id" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#id"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">id()</span></tt></a>. See
also <a class="reference internal" href="#term-immutable"><em class="xref">immutable</em></a>.</dd>
<dt id="term-named-tuple">named tuple</dt>
<dd><p class="first">Any tuple-like class whose indexable elements are also accessible using
named attributes (for example, <a title="time.localtime" class="reference external" href="library/time.html#time.localtime"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">time.localtime()</span></tt></a> returns a
tuple-like object where the <em>year</em> is accessible either with an
index such as <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">t[0]</span></tt> or with a named attribute like <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">t.tm_year</span></tt>).</p>
<p class="last">A named tuple can be a built-in type such as <a title="time.struct_time" class="reference external" href="library/time.html#time.struct_time"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">time.struct_time</span></tt></a>,
or it can be created with a regular class definition. A full featured
named tuple can also be created with the factory function
<a title="collections.namedtuple" class="reference external" href="library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">collections.namedtuple()</span></tt></a>. The latter approach automatically
provides extra features such as a self-documenting representation like
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">Employee(name='jones',</span> <span class="pre">title='programmer')</span></tt>.</p>
</dd>
<dt id="term-namespace">namespace</dt>
<dd>The place where a variable is stored. Namespaces are implemented as
dictionaries. There are the local, global and built-in namespaces as well
as nested namespaces in objects (in methods). Namespaces support
modularity by preventing naming conflicts. For instance, the functions
<tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">builtins.open()</span></tt> and <a title="os.open" class="reference external" href="library/os.html#os.open"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">os.open()</span></tt></a> are distinguished by their
namespaces. Namespaces also aid readability and maintainability by making
it clear which module implements a function. For instance, writing
<a title="random.seed" class="reference external" href="library/random.html#random.seed"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">random.seed()</span></tt></a> or <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">itertools.izip()</span></tt> makes it clear that those
functions are implemented by the <a title="Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions." class="reference external" href="library/random.html#module-random"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">random</span></tt></a> and <a title="Functions creating iterators for efficient looping." class="reference external" href="library/itertools.html#module-itertools"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">itertools</span></tt></a>
modules, respectively.</dd>
<dt id="term-nested-scope">nested scope</dt>
<dd>The ability to refer to a variable in an enclosing definition. For
instance, a function defined inside another function can refer to
variables in the outer function. Note that nested scopes work only for
reference and not for assignment which will always write to the innermost
scope. In contrast, local variables both read and write in the innermost
scope. Likewise, global variables read and write to the global namespace.</dd>
<dt id="term-new-style-class">new-style class</dt>
<dd>Old name for the flavor of classes now used for all class objects. In
earlier Python versions, only new-style classes could use Python’s newer,
versatile features like <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__slots__</span></tt>, descriptors, properties,
<a title="object.__getattribute__" class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></tt></a>, class methods, and static methods.</dd>
<dt id="term-object">object</dt>
<dd>Any data with state (attributes or value) and defined behavior
(methods). Also the ultimate base class of any <a class="reference internal" href="#term-new-style-class"><em class="xref">new-style
class</em></a>.</dd>
<dt id="term-positional-argument">positional argument</dt>
<dd>The arguments assigned to local names inside a function or method,
determined by the order in which they were given in the call. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">*</span></tt> is
used to either accept multiple positional arguments (when in the
definition), or pass several arguments as a list to a function. See
<a class="reference internal" href="#term-argument"><em class="xref">argument</em></a>.</dd>
<dt id="term-python-3000">Python 3000</dt>
<dd>Nickname for the Python 3.x release line (coined long ago when the release
of version 3 was something in the distant future.) This is also
abbreviated “Py3k”.</dd>
<dt id="term-pythonic">Pythonic</dt>
<dd><p class="first">An idea or piece of code which closely follows the most common idioms
of the Python language, rather than implementing code using concepts
common to other languages. For example, a common idiom in Python is
to loop over all elements of an iterable using a <a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">for</span></tt></a>
statement. Many other languages don’t have this type of construct, so
people unfamiliar with Python sometimes use a numerical counter instead:</p>
<div class="highlight-python3"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">food</span><span class="p">)):</span>
<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">food</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">])</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>As opposed to the cleaner, Pythonic method:</p>
<div class="last highlight-python3"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">piece</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">food</span><span class="p">:</span>
<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">piece</span><span class="p">)</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd>
<dt id="term-reference-count">reference count</dt>
<dd>The number of references to an object. When the reference count of an
object drops to zero, it is deallocated. Reference counting is
generally not visible to Python code, but it is a key element of the
<a class="reference internal" href="#term-cpython"><em class="xref">CPython</em></a> implementation. The <a title="Access system-specific parameters and functions." class="reference external" href="library/sys.html#module-sys"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">sys</span></tt></a> module defines a
<tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">getrefcount()</span></tt> function that programmers can call to return the
reference count for a particular object.</dd>
<dt id="term-slots">__slots__</dt>
<dd>A declaration inside a class that saves memory by pre-declaring space for
instance attributes and eliminating instance dictionaries. Though
popular, the technique is somewhat tricky to get right and is best
reserved for rare cases where there are large numbers of instances in a
memory-critical application.</dd>
<dt id="term-sequence">sequence</dt>
<dd>An <a class="reference internal" href="#term-iterable"><em class="xref">iterable</em></a> which supports efficient element access using integer
indices via the <a title="object.__getitem__" class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></tt></a> special method and defines a
<a title="len" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#len"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">len()</span></tt></a> method that returns the length of the sequence.
Some built-in sequence types are <a title="list" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#list"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">list</span></tt></a>, <a title="str" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#str"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">str</span></tt></a>,
<a title="tuple" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#tuple"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">tuple</span></tt></a>, and <a title="bytes" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#bytes"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">bytes</span></tt></a>. Note that <a title="dict" class="reference external" href="library/stdtypes.html#dict"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">dict</span></tt></a> also
supports <a title="object.__getitem__" class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></tt></a> and <a title="object.__len__" class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></tt></a>, but is considered a
mapping rather than a sequence because the lookups use arbitrary
<a class="reference internal" href="#term-immutable"><em class="xref">immutable</em></a> keys rather than integers.</dd>
<dt id="term-slice">slice</dt>
<dd>An object usually containing a portion of a <a class="reference internal" href="#term-sequence"><em class="xref">sequence</em></a>. A slice is
created using the subscript notation, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">[]</span></tt> with colons between numbers
when several are given, such as in <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">variable_name[1:3:5]</span></tt>. The bracket
(subscript) notation uses <a title="slice" class="reference external" href="library/functions.html#slice"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">slice</span></tt></a> objects internally.</dd>
<dt id="term-special-method">special method</dt>
<dd>A method that is called implicitly by Python to execute a certain
operation on a type, such as addition. Such methods have names starting
and ending with double underscores. Special methods are documented in
<a class="reference external" href="reference/datamodel.html#specialnames"><em>Special method names</em></a>.</dd>
<dt id="term-statement">statement</dt>
<dd>A statement is part of a suite (a “block” of code). A statement is either
an <a class="reference internal" href="#term-expression"><em class="xref">expression</em></a> or a one of several constructs with a keyword, such
as <a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">if</span></tt></a>, <a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#while"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">while</span></tt></a> or <a class="reference external" href="reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">for</span></tt></a>.</dd>
<dt id="term-triple-quoted-string">triple-quoted string</dt>
<dd>A string which is bound by three instances of either a quotation mark
(“) or an apostrophe (‘). While they don’t provide any functionality
not available with single-quoted strings, they are useful for a number
of reasons. They allow you to include unescaped single and double
quotes within a string and they can span multiple lines without the
use of the continuation character, making them especially useful when
writing docstrings.</dd>
<dt id="term-type">type</dt>
<dd>The type of a Python object determines what kind of object it is; every
object has a type. An object’s type is accessible as its
<tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__class__</span></tt> attribute or can be retrieved with <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">type(obj)</span></tt>.</dd>
<dt id="term-view">view</dt>
<dd>The objects returned from <a title="dict.keys" class="reference external" href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.keys"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">dict.keys()</span></tt></a>, <a title="dict.values" class="reference external" href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.values"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">dict.values()</span></tt></a>, and
<a title="dict.items" class="reference external" href="library/stdtypes.html#dict.items"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">dict.items()</span></tt></a> are called dictionary views. They are lazy sequences
that will see changes in the underlying dictionary. To force the
dictionary view to become a full list use <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">list(dictview)</span></tt>. See
<a class="reference external" href="library/stdtypes.html#dict-views"><em>Dictionary view objects</em></a>.</dd>
<dt id="term-virtual-machine">virtual machine</dt>
<dd>A computer defined entirely in software. Python’s virtual machine
executes the <a class="reference internal" href="#term-bytecode"><em class="xref">bytecode</em></a> emitted by the bytecode compiler.</dd>
<dt id="term-zen-of-python">Zen of Python</dt>
<dd>Listing of Python design principles and philosophies that are helpful in
understanding and using the language. The listing can be found by typing
“<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">this</span></tt>” at the interactive prompt.</dd>
</dl>
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